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Straight talk about ovarian cancer November 16, 2008

Posted by patoconnor in cancer, gynecological cancer, ovarian cancer, tubal cancer, uterine cancer, vaginal cancer.
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Straight talk about ovarian cancer

VIRGINIA R. MARTIN RN, AOCN, MSN

Nursing2005 April 2005 Volume 35 Number 4 Pages 36 – 41

Abstract

Learn how to help patients recognize and defeat this insidious malignancy.

Learn how to help patients recognize and defeat this insidious malignancy.

ACCORDING TO AMERICAN Cancer Society (ACS) estimates for 2005, 22,220 women will develop ovarian cancer and 16,210 will die of it. The leading cause of death from gynecologic cancer in the United States, ovarian cancer has historically had a poor prognosis, largely because over 70% of women affected have advanced disease at diagnosis.

But medical science is gaining ground. Thanks to improved diagnosis, staging, and treatments, 5-year survival improved from 37% in the 1970s to 53% in 1998. Let’s review how this insidious disease progresses, how you can help someone who has it, and what you need to know about promising screening methods that could lead to earlier detection and treatment.

Deep, changing organs

The ovaries are solid, slightly nodular, almond-shaped organs lying deep in the pelvis. Their hidden location, plus the fact that their size, shape, position, and histology change over a woman’s lifetime, help explain why ovarian cancer isn’t readily detected in the early stages. According to the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN), the median age at diagnosis is 63. This malignancy is rare in women under age 30.

Three major theories about the causes of ovarian cancer prevail:

* The incessant-ovulation theory zeroes in on how the monthly ovulatory cycle affects the ovaries. This theory holds that the epithelium may be more apt to mutate with each ovulation, so failure to break the cycle, as with pregnancy, increases the chance of mutation.

* The pituitary/gonadotropin hypothesis implicates elevated gonadotropin levels. Normally, the ovarian epithelium invaginates and forms inclusion cysts and clefts, but overstimulation by gonadotropins might trigger proliferation with subsequent malignant transformation.

* The inflammation theory considers monthly ovulation a possible cause of chronic inflammation and mutation in the epithelial cells that lead to ovarian cancer.

The causes of ovarian cancer are unclear, but genetic and endocrine factors raise the risk. (See How the problem starts .) The most significant link is a positive family history, which is present in 10% of women with the disease. Three hereditary syndromes in which ovarian cancer occurs more commonly affect certain families with a history of early breast and ovarian malignancies and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer.

Other factors associated with ovarian cancer include nulliparity, giving birth for the first time when over age 35, exposure to talc or asbestos, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, and living in a western industrialized country. On the bright side, researchers have identified seemingly protective factors, including a history of oral contraceptive use, giving birth before age 25, tubal ligation, breast-feeding, and hysterectomy.

Most commonly, ovarian cancer spreads via the peritoneal fluid that continuously circulates through the abdomen. Other routes for metastases are through the lymphatic fluid or by direct tumor extension. Bloodborne metastasis is rare, and this cancer rarely spreads beyond the abdomen, even when advanced.

Early signs

Retrospective studies indicate that over 70% of women with ovarian cancer have symptoms for 3 months or longer before diagnosis. But the early signs and symptoms can be nonspecific, including increased abdominal size, bloating, early satiety, abdominal pain, indigestion, vaginal bleeding, and changes in bowel and bladder habits. Because these symptoms can be vague, a woman may not pay much attention to them.

Teach your female patients to always investigate any of these symptoms if they occur.

When a woman does seek treatment and an ovarian mass is discovered, the clinical approach depends on clinical findings. If she’s premenopausal, the health care practitioner will probably monitor her for a few ovulatory cycles and investigate further if the mass doesn’t disappear. In a postmenopausal woman, any ovarian mass must immediately be investigated for cancer.

Diagnostic imaging and tumor markers

Diagnostic tests to detect ovarian cancer include the following:

* transvaginal and abdominal ultrasound. A transvaginal approach provides better visualization of the ovaries than the transabdominal method, but the location of the ovaries varies in each woman, so a combination of both approaches is recommended.

* computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen and pelvis

* a blood test for the tumor marker cancer antigen 125 (CA-125), which can be elevated in ovarian cancer. Although an ovarian mass can cause an elevated CA-125 level, so can endometriosis, pregnancy, liver disease, or fibroids, so the marker isn’t specific.

Additionally, a woman can have ovarian cancer and a normal CA-125 level; only 50% of women with stage I disease have an elevated level. For this reason, the CA-125 isn’t recommended as a screening tool for healthy women, but it can be useful in women with diagnosed ovarian cancer.

Surgery: First and foremost

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for ovarian cancer, and a gynecologic oncologist has the most training to perform the exploratory laparotomy. The goals of surgery are to determine a definitive diagnosis, to stage the disease if cancer is present, and to remove as much of the tumor as possible. (See Staging ovarian cancer .) The procedure includes a total abdominal hysterectomy, bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, scraping the abdominal surface of the diaphragm, peritoneal cytology, omentectomy, pelvic and para-aortic lymph node sampling, and peritoneal and random biopsies.

Although disease stage is the key prognostic factor for ovarian cancer, other factors influence outcome. They include the volume of cancerous tissue remaining after surgery, histologic type and grade, the woman’s age, and her overall condition or performance status. (See Rating performance .) A woman whose performance status is 0 to 2 is more likely to respond to chemotherapy, experience less toxicity, and have better outcomes. Findings associated with a poorer prognosis include a clear cell, mucinous, or poorly differentiated (unclear cell type) tumor, and diagnosis after age 69.

Is additional treatment warranted?

If your patient has well-differentiated stage IA or IB ovarian cancer that’s been surgically removed, she’s considered low risk and needs no further treatment. The oncologist will determine a follow-up plan.

Stage IA or IB ovarian cancer with a poorly differentiated tumor and stages IC, II, III, and IV disease are classified as high risk, and the patient requires chemotherapy. Scientists are still seeking the optimal regimen, but early clinical trials have shown that combination therapy with a platinum compound such as cisplatin or carboplatin is superior to using a single agent. The NCCN states that paclitaxel/carboplatin is the preferred regimen. (See Exploring chemotherapy options for other choices.)

A complete remission from cancer means all signs and symptoms disappear; remission after initial therapy that lasts 5 years may be considered a cure. Although 75% to 80% of women with ovarian cancer achieve a complete remission after initial therapy, 80% of them have a recurrence. Unfortunately, recurrent disease isn’t curable, so researchers are exploring strategies to prevent or delay recurrence, such as improved induction and maintenance regimens and the use of intraperitoneal chemotherapy.

Currently, intraperitoneal therapy is recommended only in the context of a clinical trial, but researchers have been studying it closely because ovarian cancer tends to stay in the abdomen. Study results show higher rates of progression-free survival and overall survival, but the challenges of administering therapy and managing toxicity are formidable.

Remission and monitoring

A typical woman with complete remission from ovarian cancer undergoes regular CA-125 monitoring and periodic abdominopelvic CT scans to check for recurrence. In most cases of recurrent disease, the CA-125 level rises above normal before the woman develops symptoms. Even when the CA-125 level is elevated, most oncologists don’t start chemotherapy unless a pelvic examination or abdominopelvic CT scan indicates disease recurrence; treating measurable disease lets the practitioner identify a response.

If a woman’s cancer recurs, her response to initial chemotherapy and the length of time until recurrence help determine subsequent therapy. If she achieved complete remission and didn’t have a recurrence for more than 6 months after completing initial therapy, her disease is considered drug sensitive and she’ll probably receive the same regimen.

Ovarian cancer that recurs less than 6 months after a woman achieves a complete remission is considered drug resistant . If the cancer doesn’t respond to initial therapy at all, it’s labeled drug refractory . Drug-resistant or drug-refractory disease is typically treated with a different agent, or the woman may be offered the option of participating in a clinical trial. If curing ovarian cancer isn’t possible, the patient may receive salvage therapy , which is chemotherapy to help manage symptoms and possibly prolong survival.

When recommending a treatment approach for recurrent disease, the oncologist considers the woman’s prior responses, quality of life, toxicity profile, current symptoms, disease volume, the ability of her gastrointestinal system to absorb drugs, her age, other illnesses, and social issues.

Radiation therapy may be included in the palliative treatment plan and may help if the patient has uncontrolled vaginal bleeding or pain. Radiation to the entire abdomen isn’t often considered because it’s toxic. For recurrent disease in a specific area, a radiation oncologist should outline a treatment plan. The goal of all palliative treatment is to balance the toxicities with quality of life.

Providing education and support

Research indicates that the more a patient feels threatened or harmed by cancer, the more education and support she needs. With ovarian cancer, her psychosocial and physical challenges might include advanced disease at diagnosis, repeated cycles of aggressive treatment, little respite from therapy, and a poor chance of survival. Your challenges are to address her psychosocial needs while preparing her for treatment and helping her manage adverse reactions to treatment and advanced disease.

Preoperatively, educate your patient and her family about the surgical procedure for ovarian cancer and what to expect afterward. Explain that after surgery, you’ll monitor her for infection, circulatory complications, fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and pain, and that you’ll work with the surgeon to manage any problems.

If your patient will receive chemotherapy, teach her and her family about the major adverse reactions. Explain how to prepare and respond if she develops fatigue, nausea, vomiting, hair loss, diarrhea, constipation, mucositis, neuropathy, arthralgia and myalgia, or myelosuppression.
Problems such as depression and anxiety are common when a patient faces serious illness and possible death. She may need help coping with such issues as premature menopause; loss of fertility; altered body image, sexual function, and family relationships; impaired functional capacity; financial problems; and loss of spiritual well-being.

Assess her for mood changes, feelings of worthlessness, inability to concentrate, fatigue, insomnia, impaired functioning, agitation, restlessness, and apprehensiveness. Review her medical history, current medications and treatments, nutritional status, pain rating, elimination pattern, and sexual history for factors that may contribute to depression.

Listen to her concerns and refer her to support services, such as the local chapter of the ACS. Managing her symptoms, participating in a support group, meeting with a mental health professional, and taking antidepressant or antianxiety medication all can help resolve depression and anxiety.

Finally, if cure isn’t an option, you can give your patient and her family tremendous support when you help them cope with end-of-life decisions and involve the hospice team when the time is right.

Managing the effects of advancing disease

Complications of advancing ovarian cancer can pose significant nursing challenges. Here’s a review of assessment findings and management strategies for common problems.

Ascites , accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, occurs when channels that normally remove fluid are blocked or when cancer cells prevent absorption of peritoneal fluid. Symptoms include early satiety, dyspnea, increased abdominal girth, constipation, and pain.

Suspect ascites if your patient has a protuberant abdomen with bulging flanks, an everted umbilicus, diminished bowel sounds, shiny or taut abdominal skin, and dullness to percussion in dependent areas of the abdomen. (For details, see “Assessing for Ascites” in the February issue of Nursing2005 .) An abdominal ultrasound usually confirms the diagnosis.
The treatment for ascites is removing the fluid. The oncologist may perform paracentesis in the office or in the radiology department with ultrasound guidance.

Intestinal obstruction involving the small or large intestine may plague a patient with progressing ovarian cancer. Tumor growth in the abdomen or adhesions can cause a partial or complete obstruction that interferes with peristalsis. An obstruction can be acute or chronic. Signs and symptoms of acute obstruction include acute abdominal distension and pain and projectile vomiting. Symptoms of chronic obstruction include abdominal distension and discomfort, constipation, and nausea and vomiting.

Hyperactive bowel sounds may be the first sign of acute intestinal obstruction as the bowel tries to move digestive contents past the blockage. Teach your patient to recognize problems and to immediately contact her health care provider if they occur.

A patient who develops an acute intestinal obstruction may need hospitalization and insertion of a nasogastric tube to decompress her bowel. Because a woman with advanced cancer may already be debilitated, surgery is considered only if conservative interventions fail or she’s in acute distress.

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a risk for all cancer patients because of prolonged immobility, tumors that decrease or obstruct blood flow, and hypercoagulability associated with cancer. Common signs and symptoms include unilateral leg edema or pain accompanied by tenderness, warmth, and erythema. The treatment for DVT includes anticoagulation therapy and possibly placement of a filter in the inferior vena cava.

Malnutrition is one of the greatest challenges for a woman with ovarian cancer. Treatments or advancing disease may take away her appetite, causing her to lose weight. This wasting syndrome is called cancer cachexia , an advanced state of protein-energy malnutrition. Besides weight loss, signs of cancer cachexia include decreased subcutaneous tissue, edema, abdominal distension, dry skin, and behavioral changes such as irritability. Cancer patients with weight loss generally have poor performance status, poor response to chemotherapy, poor median survival, and possibly a greater infection risk.

Measures to protect the patient from malnutrition include treating the underlying problem, delaying chemotherapy, getting a nutrition consult, and medications (such as corticosteroids, megestrol, hydrazine, dronabinol, nabilone, oxandrolone, growth hormones, and medroxyprogesterone). Advise her to eat frequent, small meals served at room temperature; eliminate disagreeable food odors; get help with food preparation; and use nutritional supplements.

Lymphedema , an accumulation of lymphatic fluid in the interstitial tissue, occurs when the tumor blocks the lymphatic system or when lymph nodes have been removed. Lymphedema associated with ovarian cancer affects the legs. The affected leg maintains full sensation, but with edema, range of motion decreases and the skin feels tight to the patient.

Your patient should be referred to a knowledgeable practitioner in lymphedema management. The severity and grade of lymphedema determine the interventions, which may include range-of-motion exercises, meticulous skin care to reduce the risk of skin breakdown, elevation, massage or physical therapy to manually aid drainage, compression bandaging, or sequential pump therapy.

Pleural effusion occurs when the rate of pleural fluid production exceeds its removal rate from the pleural space, such as when a tumor invades the thoracic duct, or when ascites fluid seeps through the diaphragm. Signs and symptoms may include dyspnea, decreased or absent breath sounds, decreased tactile fremitus, or dullness to percussion. An effusion is treated by draining the fluid via thoracentesis or insertion of a tunneled indwelling pleural catheter.

What about screening and prevention?

Current screening methods for ovarian cancer aren’t sensitive or specific enough for routine use. A woman with a positive family history, however, should have a formal risk assessment with an extensive family history, education, risk estimation and counseling, optional genetic testing, and specific screening and prevention strategies. Screening strategies often include a rectovaginal pelvic exam, a CA-125 blood test, and transvaginal ultrasound.

Scientists are exploring the natural history of ovarian cancer to develop cost-effective, sensitive screening strategies. Researchers studying cell proteins are developing a test that tracks trends in multiple tumor markers specific for ovarian cancer. The first published study reported 18 of 18 stage I cancers and 63 of 66 healthy controls accurately identified, yielding 100% sensitivity and 95% specificity. A yet-unpublished study accurately identified 22 of 22 cases of early stage I disease, 81 of 81 cases of stage II to stage IV disease, and 68 of 68 cases of benign disease. The test must be validated and standardized before being used as a screening tool.

Prevention strategies for ovarian cancer may include a prophylactic bilateral oophorectomy in high-risk women who’ve finished childbearing. Other prevention strategies being used in clinical trials include the use of oral contraceptives and other drugs such as acetaminophen and the synthetic retinoid, fenretinide.

Finally, you have many opportunities to improve the outlook for ovarian cancer. Educate your female patients about the signs and symptoms and emphasize the importance of reporting “insignificant” symptoms that could be early warning signs. Early detection and treatment offer the best chance for survival.

Education, support, and hands-on care

Patient outcomes for ovarian cancer are getting better as detection and treatment methods improve. When you give a woman the education, support, and hands-on care she needs to combat this malignancy, you bolster her ability to successfully fight back.

How the problem starts

Three major categories of ovarian cancer have been identified:

Epithelial cancers , arising from the cells lining or covering the ovaries, account for 90% of ovarian malignancies. Epithelial cancers are further classified as serous (most common), endometrioid, clear cell, mucinous, and poorly differentiated.

Germ cell cancers start in cells destined to become ova.

Stromal cell cancers start in the connective tissue cells that hold the ovaries together and produce female hormones.

Staging ovarian cancer

Stage I: Tumor limited to the ovaries

IA , limited to one ovary, no tumor on the ovarian surface, no malignant cells in ascites or peritoneal washings, capsule intact

IB , limited to both ovaries, no tumor on the ovarian surface, no malignant cells in ascites or peritoneal washings, capsules intact

IC * , limited to one or both ovaries, tumor on ovarian surface, capsule ruptured, ascites or peritoneal washings containing malignant cells

Stage II: Tumor involving one or both ovaries with pelvic extension

IIA , extension or metastasis to the uterus or tubes, no malignant cells in ascites or peritoneal washings

IIB , extension to other pelvic tissues, no malignant cells in ascites or peritoneal washings

IIC * , pelvic extension, ascites fluid or peritoneal washings containing malignant cells

Stage III: Tumor involving one or both ovaries, peritoneal implants outside the pelvis or regional lymph node metastasis

IIIA , gross tumor limited to the true pelvis, negative nodes, microscopic peritoneal metastasis beyond the pelvis

IIIB , macroscopic peritoneal metastasis 2 cm or less in greatest dimension beyond the pelvis

IIIC , abdominal implants greater than 2 cm in greatest dimension or positive regional nodes

Stage IV: Tumor involving one or both ovaries, metastasis greater than 2 cm in greatest dimension beyond the pelvis. If pleural effusion is present, cytologic test results must be positive. Parenchymal liver metastases equals stage IV.

Rating performance

The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group established the following scale to rate the effects of cancer and its treatments on the patient.

0 Normal activity, asymptomatic

1 Symptomatic, fully ambulatory

2 Symptomatic, in bed less than 50% of the time

3 Symptomatic, in bed more than 50% of the time but not bedridden

4 100% bedridden

SELECTED WEB SITES

National Ovarian Cancer Coalition

Ovarian Cancer National Alliance

SHARE: Self-help for Women with Breast or Ovarian Cancer

Women’s Cancer Network and CancerSource
Last accessed on March 3, 2005.

Virginia R. Martin is the clinical director of ambulatory care at Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia, Pa.

The author has disclosed that she has no significant relationship with or financial interest in any commercial companies that pertain to this educational activity.

Exploring chemotherapy options

The current standard regimen for advanced ovarian cancer is paclitaxel (Taxol) and the platinum compound carboplatin. Alternatives are docetaxel (Taxotere) with carboplatin or paclitaxel with cisplatin, another platinum compound.

Recent clinical trials found no difference in survival between patients receiving carboplatin with either docetaxel or paclitaxel, but the docetaxel/carboplatin group had a greater incidence of myelosuppression. Those receiving paclitaxel/carboplatin had more neuropathy. Newer drugs being combined with carboplatin and paclitaxel are topotecan, liposomal doxorubicin, and gemcitabine.

The Gynecologic Oncology Group (GOG), a research group funded by the National Cancer Institute, is currently conducting a clinical trial for high-risk early-stage disease comparing three cycles of paclitaxel/carboplatin followed by surveillance versus paclitaxel alone weekly for 24 weeks. The GOG is also proposing a clinical trial on the use of carboplatin and paclitaxel combined with bevacizumab to treat advanced ovarian cancer.

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SELECTED REFERENCES

Bookman MA, et al. Optimal therapy of advanced ovarian cancer: Carboplatin and paclitaxel vs. cisplatin and paclitaxel (GOG 158) and an update on GOG0 182-ICON5. International Journal of Gynecological Cancer . 13(6):735–740, November/December 2003.
Cunningham RS, Bell R. Nutrition in cancer: An overview. Seminars in Oncology Nursing . 16(2):90–98, May 2000.
Ferrell B, et al. Psychological well being and quality of life in ovarian cancer survivors. Cancer . 98(5):1061–1071, September 1, 2003.
Howell D, et al. Impact of ovarian cancer perceived by women. Cancer Nursing . 26(1):1–9, February 2003.
Howell D, et al. Women’s experience with recurrent ovarian cancer. Cancer Nursing . 26(1):10–17, February 2003.
Jemal A, et al. Cancer Statistics 2005. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians . 55(1):10–30, January/February 2005.
Martin VR. Ovarian cancer. Seminars in Oncology Nursing . 18(3):174–183, August 2002.
Ozols RF. Future directions in the treatment of ovarian cancer. Seminars in Oncology . 29(1: Suppl. 1):32–42, February 2002.
Ozols RF, et al. Focus on epithelial ovarian cancer. Cancer Cell . 5(1):19–24, January 2004.

Source
Federation Internationale de Gynecologie et d’Obstetrique (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics).

* Knowing whether rupture of the capsule was spontaneous or caused by the surgeon and whether peritoneal washings or ascites was the source of malignant cells helps the clinician decide whether a case should be categorized as stage IC or IIC. [Context Link]

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